Fourth Semester Notes

UNIT-I

BOUTIQUE HOTELS

Boutique hotel is a term popularized in North America and the United Kingdom to describe intimate, usually luxurious or quirky hotel environments. Boutique hotels differentiate themselves from larger chain/branded hotels and motels by providing personalized accommodation and services / facilities. Sometimes known as "design hotels" or "lifestyle hotels", boutique hotels began appearing in the 1980s in major cities like London, New York, and San Francisco. Typically boutique hotels are furnished in a themed, stylish and/or aspirational manner. They usually are considerably smaller than mainstream hotels, often ranging from 3 to 50 guest rooms.

Boutique hotels are always individual and are therefore extremely unlikely to be found amongst the homogeneity of large chain hotel groups. Guest rooms and suites may be fitted with telephony and Wi-Fi Internet, air-conditioning, honesty bars and often cable/pay TV, but equally may have none of these, focusing on quiet and comfort rather than gadgetry. Guest services are often attended to by 24-hour hotel staff. Many boutique hotels have on-site dining facilities, and the majority offer bars and lounges that may also be open to the general public. Despite this definition, the popularity of the boutique term and concept has led to some confusion about the term. Boutique hotels have typically been unique properties operated by individuals or companies with a small collection. However, their successes have prompted multi-national hotel companies to try to establish their own brands in order to capture a market share.^[2] The most notable example is Worldwide W Hotels, ranging from large boutique hotels, such as the W Union Square NY, to the W 'boutique resorts' in the Maldives, to true luxury boutique hotel collections, such as the Bulgari collection, Kimpton Hotels & Restaurants, SLS Hotels, Epoque Hotels, Thompson Hotels, Joie De Vie hotels, The Keating Hotel, and O Hotel, among many others.

There is some overlap between the concept of a small boutique hotel and a bed and breakfast.

In the United States, New York remains the centre of the boutique hotel phenomenon, as the original Schrager-era boutique hotels remain relevant and are joined by scores of independent and small-chain competitors, mainly clustered about Midtown and downtown Manhattan.^[3] The French Quarter and Garden District, New Orleans have several dozen boutique hotels, most of which are located in old homes or inns. These usually provide an ambiance based on 19th-century antiques, artwork with New Orleans themes, vintage or reproduction furniture and decor and/or interesting historical associations. Miami and Miami Beach also have several boutique hotels, found mostly along the beachfront streets Ocean Drive and Collins Avenue. Most of these are in buildings from the heyday of the Art Deco period. Their attractions include the Art Deco ambiance, beach access, nouvelle and Latin cuisines, and tropical-themed interior décor.

The concept of boutique or design hotels has spread throughout the world, including European countries like Spain, and East Asian countries such as Thailand, where many boutique or design hotels are sprouting, especially in resort locations, such as Phuket and Hua Hin. Other Far Eastern cities in which boutique and design hotels are becoming increasingly popular include Bangkok, Singapore, Malaysia, and Hong Kong. Boutique hotels are even appearing in such places as Indonesia, mainland China, Iceland, Peru, and Turkey, demonstrating that the concept has penetrated beyond the typical design capitals of the world and is entering new markets.

A boutique hotel is one that is generally not chain-affiliated, features an intimate, stylish appearance and provides impeccable amenities. Also referred to as lifestyle or design hotels, the trend and related name began in the 1980s by Northern Americans. Although many boutique hotels are small, ranging from single digit rooms to less than 100, some in major cities have well over 100 rooms.

Considered among the first boutique hotels are The Blake’s Hotel in South Kensington, London, and the Bedford, a San Francisco hotel. The Morgans Hotel in Murray Hill, New York, is also considered by many to be one of the original boutique hotels, as is the Hotel Village Court in San Francisco.

The Boutique Hotels in India are a few small unique hotels located throughout the country. They have been categorized as boutique owing to their intimate size, idyllic settings, highly personalized service, individual style and outstanding attributes.
These Indian boutique hotel lodgings and accommodations exemplify the charm and uniqueness that serve as the country's real allure. They are the best India has to offer for wonderful Indian hideaways and getaways. Each boutique hotel offers a unique vacation experience, high levels of personal attention and service. Tourism of India.com offers the best hotel deals for all the boutique hotels.

Boutique Hotels in India:

§  Cama Park Plaza, Ahmedabad

§  Devigarh Palace, Devigarh

§  Gordon House, Mumbai

§  Hans Plaza, New Delhi

§  Nilaya Hermitage, Goa

§  Pousada Tauma, Goa

§  Malabar House Residency, Kochi

§  Shalimar Spice Garden, Thekkady

§  The Manor, New Delhi

§  The Park, New Delhi

§  The Park, Chennai

§  The Park, Bangalore

§  The Park, Kolkata

§  The Park, Vishakhapatnam

§  De L'Orient, Pondicherry

The social dimension of leisure planning emphasizes the difference between it and general planning. Leisure facilitioes, outside the home, in comparison to housing, retail outlets, roads and so on are non essential facilities. Assessing the demand for a particular leisure amenity is therefore a complex process., since there are a range of competing attractions for a persons leisure time. This is where leisure professionals can help.

The leisure manager should be involved in the planning process at the earliest stage to assist in assessing need and demand, identifying gaps in provision and in proposing appropriate services and facilities. Unfortunately, however there are too many examples of poor planning. The most common failure is that leisure facilities often placed on land which is owned by the local authority, but which is not an appropriate location.

 

BUBBLE DIAGRAMS

•      A diagram which represents information visually in the form of a series of bubbles. This type of diagram can be used to present a wide variety of information for the purpose of activities like presentations, planning out designs, and developing strategy. Many programs with features which allow diagramming have the capacity to produce bubble diagrams and it is also possible to buy specialized software. Some people prefer to produce such diagrams by hand.

•      One case in which the bubble diagram is widely used is in the development of plans for landscaping and architecture. The bubbles can be used to represent different kinds of spaces in a plan, varying in shape to represent features of greater or lesser importance and size. The bubble diagram can create a rough sense of flow which is used to develop a more refined plan.

LANDSCAPING

Landscaping Symbols (-from book)

Facility Planning:

It requires precise operational efficiency to ensure guests relax and recharge their batteries. Flexible design ensures complete functionality today and adaptability for the future. Renovation project or new construction, Blue Spa & Leisure plans for outstanding practicability as we:

• Evaluate the site plans and determine member flow
• Determine the number, size and type of rooms and areas 
• Work closely with architects and contractors 
• Negotiate the best rates with our preferred suppliers for the products you require
• Provide constructive direction to the interior designer on quality, quantity and type of finishes, furniture and signage

PLANNING LAYOUTS- GUESTROOMS, BATH ROOMS, LOUNGES, SUITES

Lodging Planning and Design

1.      Describe the hotel development process.

2.      Describe site planning.

3.      Describe guestroom and suite planning.

4.      Describe lobby design.

5.      Summarize function space design concerns.

1.      The Hotel Development Process

1.1 Feasibility study

1.2 Space allocation program

1.3 Operational criteria

1.4 Construction/engineering criteria

1.5 Budget

1.6 Preliminary schedule

2.      The Planning and Design Process

2.1 Site Planning

2.2 Hotel Planning

a.       Guestrooms and Suites

b.      The Lobby

THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS
1.1 Feasibility study: The typical report usually covers the following components:

• Local area evaluation
• Lodging market analysis
• Proposed facilities
• Financial analysis

SPACE ALLOCATION PROGRAM

·         The program is a document that lists the design requirements for a project.

·         Most obvious difference among properties is the ratio of guestroom space to public and support space.

 

OPERATIONAL CRITERIA

·         Future property’s operations, including food and beverage concepts, front office procedures, housekeeping systems, typical guest amenities, and so forth.

·         Many operational decisions are changing because of the increased automation and computerization of hotels.

CONSTRUCTION/ENGINEERING CRITERIA

·         Outline specifications should established to identify such construction details as the primary exterior materials, type of window glass, and quality of interior finishes

BUDGET

The construction cost is only about 60 to 65 percent of the total project budget and does not include costs of furnishings, professional fees, financing, and pre-opening expenses, among others

SITE PLANNING

·         Includes (Visibility, accessibility, Surface and subsurface Condition, Regulatory restrictions, Orientation & Climate, and Adaptability)

·         Designers should assess the relative need for the following public entrances (in addition to the receiving and trash area and employee entrances):

ü  Main hotel entrance

ü  Hall room/banquet entrance

ü  Restaurant/bar / nightclub / casino entrance

ü  Health club / spa entrance

ü  Tour bus/airport bus drop-off entrance

ü  Condominium entrance

 HOTEL PLANNING
a. Guestrooms and Suites

•         The major planning goal should be to maximize the amount of saleable guestroom space and keep to a minimum the circulation and supporting areas.

•         So its important to Control the following:

ü  Guestroom Floor Planning

ü  Guestroom Layout

ü  Suit Layout

Guestroom Floor Planning-

The more common guestroom floor configurations include:

•         Double-loaded slab

•         The tower

•         The atrium

Guestroom Layout-

•         The designer needs to integrate an understanding of the hotel’s typical guests and their needs.

One approach is to consider zoning the guestroom into separate areas, accommodating such overlapping functions as sleeping, working, lounging, dressing, and hygiene.

GUESTROOM LAYOUT

•         Individual furnishings should meet a number of basic design criteria;

•         Beds: Determine the exact room mix for the hotel; provide adequate spacing, include bedside tables and adequate lighting; consider TV viewing angle.

•         Work area: Provide a desk or worktable; consider chair height and comfort and provide adequate lighting, a telephone, and a data connection.

•         Lounge area: Provide a soft seating group; consider comfort, lighting, table(s), TV viewing angle, and adequate space for foldout sofa; assess need for mini- bar.

•         Clothes storage/dressing area: Determine requirements for drawer space, the size of the closet, and luggage storage needs; provide full-length mirror.

•     Bathroom: Select bathroom fixtures and accessories; consider lighting, counter space, ventilation, and finishes.

• Decor: Evaluate FF&E—carpet, wall covering, sheer and blackout drapes, bedspreads, and so forth.

• Other: Screen view into guestroom from the corridor; provide a separate dressing area; assess the need for balcony, adjoining rooms, etc.

SUITE LAYOUT

•         In most commercial hotels the suites are placed on the upper floors and others set it vertically in the same location on each floor.

•         There are two common models for suites:

1. The “front-to-back” or “shotgun” module
2. The “side- by-side” module

UNIT-II

STAFFING AND SCHEDULING

SCHEDULING

Once the executive housekeeper determines who will work in the department, he or she needs to determine when each will work. Effective scheduling makes sure all the necessary tasks are accomplished.

CREATING ROTATIONAL AND STANDING SCHEDULE

Using various management and forecasting tools, professional housekeepers generally make up a standing schedule that serves as a broad, long term framework for scheduling. The standard schedule reflects the number of workers needed on average to do the work assigned to the department. Computers have eased the formerly labor intensive task of scheduling.

In some properties, this standard schedule includes a rotation element. Previously, having weekends off was a perquisite of seniority. With rotational scheduling all employees have regular opportunities to have weekends or at least one weekend day off. For example, if an employee works Sunday through Thursday one week, he or she may work Monday through Friday the next and so on. Rotational scheduling works equally well for individuals or teams.

CREATING DAILY SCHEDULES

The EHK or an Assistant housekeeper prepares the daily work schedule for the housekeeping department. He or she must determine how much work there will be in order to schedule the optimum amount of staff to get work done. Generally, the actual schedule is posted one or two weeks in advance, and then modified if necessary. Data needed to determine this includes:

·         Advance reservations: Which are the reservations made prior to the day of check in?

·         Night Auditor’s Report: Which indicates how many rooms, will be due outs or check outs, which means the guest’s stay is ending, how many rooms are occupied, notes any last minute reservation calls.

·         Occupancy or room forecast: An educated guess of how many rooms or functions will be booked for that day; initial forecasts are made months in advance, then recalculated several weeks in advance, one week in advance and finally in detail the night before.

·         Historic Occupancy trends, actual rooms’ sales for the period tracked over a number of years.

·         Special events such as conventions or trade shows and holidays.

Typically, a next day room forecast is sent to housekeeping daily between noon and 2 p.m. This information is the basis of the following day’s schedule. If check outs will be heavy, extra staff has to be scheduled. Check out rooms must be thoroughly cleaned before the next guest occupies them. Employees should check schedules at the beginning and end of their shifts because scheduling refinements are ongoing.

Technology plays a useful role in making sure the housekeeping department has the latest occupancy and reservation information. Computer links from the front office can update the information in the housekeeping department instantaneously and the staff member doing the scheduling can respond accordingly.

A TEN DAYS SCHEDULING FOR NEW ROOM ATTENDANTS

DAY 1 ORIENTATION

·         Tour of all public space, employee space and sample guest rooms.

·         Department goals and mission statement.

·         Introduction of department staff.

·         Expectations of performance.

·         Scheduling, time clock, breaks.

·         Safety procedures including chemical use.

·         Safety procedures including keys.

·         Lost and Found.

DAY 2,3,4,5 (ASSIGNED TO TRAINER FOR SKILLS TRAINING)

·         Use of protective equipment.

·         Stripping of daily cleaning.

·         Emptying waste cans and ash trays.

·         Defrosting refrigerators.

·         Making a sofa bed.

·         Making a bed.

·         Making a roll away bed.

·         Checking underneath bed.

·          Dusting furniture, drawers, pictures, sills.

·         Cleaning lamps, checking bulbs.

·         Checking TV remote and channel sticker.

·         Cleaning waste baskets.

·         Cleaning window frames and windows.

·         Cleaning upholstered chairs.

·         Placement of furniture.

·         Cleaning and locking adjoining doors.

·         Cleaning the telephones.

·         Setting the time on digital clocks.

·         Proper paper supplies and placement.

·         Cleaning the bath tub tile and chrome fittings.

·         Cleaning the grout.

·         Cleaning the toilet seat and base.

·         Cleaning bathrooms, walls, floors.

·         Cleaning the vanity counter, sink, and stopper.

·         Cleaning bathroom lights.

·         Folding towels, tissues and toilet paper.

·         Placing clean glasses and ice bucket.

·         Proper bathroom amenities and placement.

·         When to replace toilet paper, soaps.

·         Vacuuming carpets.

·         Pulling beds and furniture.

·         Placing hangers and laundry bags.

·         Checking condition of iron and boards.

·         Cleaning coffee machine and restocking.

·         Cleaning finger prints on doors and walls.

·         Cleaning air vents and corners for cobwebs.

·         Proper placement of drapes.

·         HVACs’ settings.

·         Changing status of room.

·         Special needs of stay over guests.

·         Procedure for rooms with pets.

·         Order of completing assignments.

·         Do not disturb handling.

·         What if phone rings while in room?

·         Cleaning hall area near room.

·         Emptying a vacuum.

·         Handling keys.

·         Fulfilling guest requests.

·         Limiting access to guest rooms.

·         Making maintenance reports.

·         Making notes for missing linen and furniture.

·         Lost and found.

·         Package passes requests.

·         Late, absent procedures.

·         Inspection routine.

·         Entrance/Exit use.

·         Care of cart and supplies.

·         Lunch break procedures.

·         Safety rules on guest floors.

·         Communicating with other workers.

DAY 6 -10 FULL ROUTINE

At the conclusion of the day five, the trainer should review the checklist with the room attendant and the supervisor to assess progress and receive feedback from the employee. Beginning day six, the room attendant should also be assigned a short set of rooms, perhaps eight. Then each day assign two more until the new hire has gained confidence and proficiency. Generally speaking, under the guidance of a trainer, a new hire should be able to clean 16 rooms a day by the end of the second week.

Developing Employee work schedule:

• A schedule should cover a full work week, which is typically defined as Sunday through Saturday.
• Schedules should be posted at least three days before the beginning of the next work week.
• Days off, vacation time and requested days off should all be indicated on the posted work schedule.
• The work schedule for the current week should be reviewed daily in relation to the occupancy data. If necessary changes to the schedule should be made.
• A copy of the posted work schedule can be used to monitor the daily attendance of the employees. This copy should be retained as part of the department’s permanent records.

Parameters to Consider

• Shift Types: Most hotels operate 24 hours a day and these hours are covered in three shifts. Each shift’s duration is 9 hrs. and these shifts are normally scheduled to overlap by an hour with the next shift to facilitate handovers and takeovers.
• Straight Shift: This type of shift extends for a period of 9 hrs with a break of 1 hour. For example the morning shift and evening are both straight shifts.
• Night Shift/Graveyard Shift: A standard shift is actually a type of straight shift that normally starts from 10 p.m. and concludes at 7 a.m.
• Break Shift/Split Shift: This type of shift is split into two sessions that add up to a regular shift of 9-10 hours. This includes a break of 3-6 hours.
• Rotating Shift: An employee may be given a particular shift for a week or two, and then changed over to the next shift. This rotation is done to ensure that all employees get a fair share of all the shifts.

Other Scheduling Concerns

• Overtime: Employees may be asked to work overtime when there is a shortage of staff. This entitles the employee for double and/or compensatory off. Overtime must be avoided as it decreases productivity and increases labor cost.
• Alternative Scheduling Techniques: Getting the right job staff for various job positions is challenging and it is wise to sometimes consider alternative scheduling techniques to accommodate and retain good staff. Alternative schedules vary from the typical 9-5 work hours. These schedules may attract the right kind of people out of those who find it difficult to fit into a 9-5 job. The alternative scheduling options are discussed below.
• Part time: Part time employees do not work 9 hours a day like full time employees. They may work only 4-5 hours per day. In the housekeeping department, the ideal example of a part time position is that of a florist.
• Flexi Time: In this kind of scheduling, an employee can work anytime according to his/her convenience and is paid accordingly.
• Compressed Work Schedules: An employee working 9 hours a day and 6 days a week puts in 54 labor hours a week. If the employee wishes these 54 hours can be compre4ssedwithin 5 days a week, that is, the employee would be required to work nearly11 hours day and get 2 days off to compensate.
• Job Sharing: A full time job may be shared between two part time employees. The part time employees involved usually work in different shifts. Job sharing is advantageous in cases where one partner resigns from the job and leaves. At such a time, the other employee stays and trains the new partner.

Legal Aspects of Scheduling

The executive housekeeper must be aware of certain legal aspects- The Shops and Establishment Act and the state labor rules-while drawing up schedules for employees. Some important issues are as follows:

• Work Hours: Hours of work foe employees should not exceed 9 hours per day.
• Break for Rest: The break for rest is usually half an hour. Continuous work should not exceed 5 hours without a break.
• Holidays and Days Off: The employer should prepare a list of closed days at the beginning of each year and the same should be displayed in a conspicuous notice.
• Work Spreadover: The work spread over of an employee should not exceed 11-14 hours in a day and not more than two breaks should be given.
• Child Labor: No child should work in any establishment.
• Work Environment: Employees should be given clean, safe and favourable conditions to work in.
• Maternity Leave: Women should be entitled to maternity leave. Nursing women should be given an extra break for feeding their infants if the establishment is running a crèche.

WORK SCHEDULE

 A work schedule is a document that lists the actual tasks to be carried out by an employee in a particular shift and the time frame in which to undertake each task. The document includes the following:

Ø  The position of an employee

Ø  The area of operation

Ø  The time at which the employee has to perform the allotted task

Ø  Timings of meals, breaks and any special jobs

Ø  Time for tidying equipment and closing up

Work schedules must be written in simple language and have a concise form. Since the amount of work in a day may take longer than the length of one shift, several work schedules need to be compelled for use in one day. The number of schedules made for a given area is thus an indication of the number of staff required to clean that area on a particular day. The schedules should be handed over to employees when they report for work.

Sample Work Schedule

                                                            Position: Houseman              Area: Lobby

Time                                                               Activity

7.00 a.m.                                 Report to work, collect equipment and supplies.

7.10 a.m.                                 Clean glass doors.

                                                Dry mop floor at the entrance.

                                                Damp mop the entrance, including steps.  

                                    Sweep porch area.

                                    Damp dust lounge area.

                                    Damp mop the lobby floor.

                                                Disinfect house telephones.

                                                Discard old flower arrangements.

9.30 a.m.                                 Vacuum clean carpets.

10.00 a.m.                               Coffee Break

10.15 a.m.                               Dry mop floors.

                                    Damp mop the lobby floor.

                                    Clean glass windows.

                                    Sweep porch area.

                                    Damp mop the entrance, including steps.  

1.30 p.m.                                 Break for lunch.

2.15 p.m.                                 Damp dust lounge area.

                                                Disinfect house telephones.

                                                Dry mop floors.

3.45 p.m.                                 Wash and put away cleaning equipment and supplies.

                                                Report back to the head houseman.

4.00 p.m.                                 Go off duty.

DUTY ROSTER

Periodicity Planning

A duty roster can be prepared on a weekly, monthly or bimonthly basis, but it has been proved that a monthly duty roster, which is crosschecked everyday and updated by the leave-in-charge, works the best. A monthly duty roster also increases accountability towards one's job as it becomes easy to measure performance.

Responsibility Planning

The responsibility of preparing the roster should not only be that of a senior team member but should be shared by all on a rotational basis. This brings in empathy among team members. When each one experiences the difficulty of pleasing everybody and meeting the demands of a 24-hour business, the understanding among team members increases.

Leave Planning

Annual leave planning must be done at the beginning of the year. A simple format can be found in picture 1.

Holidays should also be planned likewise at the beginning of the year taking into consideration that everyone must get holidays on turns and festival holidays should be based on religion. Also, if there is a majority of staff belonging to a particular religion a separate planning should be conducted for distribution turn wise. For example, Holi to Asha and Diwali to Shekhar. All this looks complicated but if the formats are pre-prepared and the system of making and updating is automatic, then it becomes easy. The efforts are worth it as it saves us from unnecessary union issues and staff dissatisfaction. If there are requests after the rosters are out, do not change it. If there is a genuine need, then instead of involving yourself in the process let the concerned person change it with another notifying you of it through a duty/off change slip.

 

Double Duty Planning

In this day and age there are very strict manpower limitations almost everywhere, to the extent that the corporate human resources division (HRD) regulates the manpower needed for all units. There is accountability towards increase in manpower if required. But there are times when there is need for more manpower, which can be achieved only through double duties. There must be a separate roster for double duties, which should be made along with the monthly duty roster. See picture 3 for what it should ideally look like. Double duties are very tiresome. So, they have to be planned very carefully (preferably by prefixing it to an holiday) and discontinued as soon as the need is over. For example, in hotels it depends on the occupancy. Double duty payments should be made very regularly to keep the morale high of the staff and to avoid any union issues. If all the above can be taken into consideration and the monthly roster out on the notice board on time then there should be no reason for the staff to feel disgusted with the working hours or charge the seniors with partial behavior which can act as a major performance deterrent.

Key Points

• Respect the choices of holidays of team members and pleasantly surprise them with rosters based on them without them asking for it. It is not a very difficult thing to do and can bring about a lot of happiness in the department.
• Counsel staff regularly who absent too often, always behave obstinately regarding offs/holidays, avoid doing double duties on a regular basis. Most importantly, record the counseling sessions with the HRD. Very often we counsel staff but do not record it anywhere. Remember, by not doing this very important step you are setting an example to all the performers that even non-performers can thrive in the work place. Involve the union at each step before the concerned person makes an issue out of the counseling. Likewise, there should be small incentives for staff with zero absenteeism and they must be appreciated openly in front of fellow colleagues. The planners as discussed above should be out at the beginning of the year itself.
• During high occupancy, there must be motivational sessions and celebrations for good business done by a very senior person to keep the morale of the staff high. For example, the general manager in a hotel can do it.

SWING TEAMS

Swing / relief teams, although not assigned to a regular division of hotel, are as accountable as regular teams for performance and for the condition of jointly used equipment on the days they are scheduled to work in a given division. This helps resolve problems that come up for eg., GRA’S on occasion complain about the condition of their section after returning from their scheduled day’s off, or about their maid’s cart, vacuum cleaner, or other equipments. Such complaints are often resolved when the regular GRA knows exactly who will be cleaning in the section when the regular team is off. Problems are much easier to talk out when the same workers face each other and are held accountable for the condition of jointly used equipment.

As another example, let’s consider the regular GRA on the red team who works in section 1, five days each week. When the red team is off, swing team 1 woks in the red division, and Jane from that swing team regularly works in Mary’s section. On a different day, swing team 1 relieves the yellow team, and Mary and Jane both work in the hotel. Both of them, as well as their supervisor, thus have the opportunity to talk about section 1 and to discuss and resolve any problems. Also when credits are offered for the condition of section 1, the red team and swing team 1 receive equal place.

UNIT-III

The Laundry

The laundry can be defined as a place where the washing and finishing of clothes and other washable articles are carried out.

Types of Laundries

1.      Commercial/Off Premises/Contracted/Off Site Laundries

These cater to the hotels on a contract basis. The contract specifies the rate for laundering different articles of linen, the time taken for laundering. Usually the soiled linen are laundered and delivered back to the hotel within 24 to 48 hours. The laundries may however hold back 3 to 5% of the soiled linen for stain removal and other special treatments. Contract laundries a re a good option if the hotel does not want to make a heavy investment in setting up its own laundry or has space constraints.

Advantages to the hotel

• No capital outlay.
• Little technical expertise required.
• Labour costs are saved.

Disadvantages

• Less control over standards.
• Delivery and collection delays.
• Higher stocks required as it takes a longer time for the whole process to complete a single laundry cycle including transportation.
• Loss of articles may increase.
• Extra costs for special treatments.

On Premises/On-site/In House Laundry

An on premises laundry (OPL) is the hotel’s own laundry, Situated on its premises. It may be run by the management or managed on a contract. Many hotels make this heavy investment to provide quality service to guests. More care is taken while laundering in house since it is the direct responsibility of the hotel. Services are faster (a maximum of 8 hours to return laundered articles), hence par stocks are reduced. There is better supervision, better control, and hence a longer life for linen. There are fewer chances of pilferage since the linen does not leave the premises. However, a contingency plan must be made, to be implemented in case of equipment failure.

Advantages to the hotel

·         No losses or short falls of missing articles are likely to occur.

·         Can cover emergency requirements.

·         Is a capital asset.

·         Less stock required as cycle is quicker.

Disadvantages

·         Initial capital investment is high.

·         Higher labour costs.

·         Technical expertise or special management is required.

·         High costs of maintenance, overheads and repairs.

  

Laundromats

These are self service laundries usually found in motels. Laundromats may be utilized using coin slots to pay by the load or by making a fixed monthly payment. In some resorts, Long stay guests can also utilize the equipment.

Planning an OPL

The decision of whether to include a laundry on the premises should ideally be made during the initial planning stages for the facility. If this is not done, considerable costs may be incurred to change the plumbing and electrical systems later. Hot water, cold water, steam, gas, large sewer drains and water lines are essential plumbing considerations. Hot water temperatures between 160 degree C to 180 degree C should be available for sanitizing the machines. Both 110V (for equipment manufactured in Europe) and 220V (for equipment manufactured in India) grounded electric outlets should be provided in strategic locations for the operation of laundry equipment.

Location

The location of the laundry must be strategic enough to eliminate transportation problems and because of the noisy and humid nature of the area. The laundry should be easily accessible from the linen room so that heavy bundles of laundry can easily be transported from one location to another. It should be located away from guest areas, however because of acoustic reasons, vibration and humidity problems anticipated in a laundry. It should preferably be along the outside wall of the building to provide adequate ventilation.

Size

The rule of thumb for hotel laundries is 7 square feet per room ( not including soil storage). For soil storage, 1 cubic foot for every 3.6 kg9upto a height of 4 feet) is usually allotted, though it is difficult to state an optimum size as per the need of individual institutions.

Ventilation

This is essential to exhaust moisture laden air from the dryers out of the laundry. Laundry rooms also require adequate ventilation through regular doors or windows to take in supply of fresh air equal to the amount of air removed from the room through exhaust fans. Without ample intake, dryers will not operate at their specified efficiencies.

Equipment Selection

Laundry equipment must be considered in relation to initial cost, life expectancy, maintenance and depreciation. Overhead costs of utilities such as electricity, water, and gas need to be considered. Generally it is wise to install two washers instead of one as it takes less time to accumulate a full load for a smaller machine and there will be some back up if one machine needs servicing.

  

 Labour

The rule of thumb for a small institutional laundry is that one person should be able to handle weight of about 36 kg an hour.

Other Costs

Costs of laundry aids such as soap, bleach, detergents, and other chemicals should be estimated and consideration should be given as to how bulk quantities of these supplies will be stored. Decisions have to be made as to who will maintain and supervise the laundry and what work force will be required.

LAYOUT OF A LAUNDRY

When planning the layout of a laundry, consider the work flow and wherever possible ensure that the plan does not hinder the smooth flow of operations. To reduce turnaround time between loads, ease of loading and unloading, equipments must be arranged properly, taking into account ease of each operation. When positioning laundry equipment, the following must be considered:

Ø  entrances and exits

Ø  support columns and beams

Ø  space between adjacent machines and adequate space between the back of the machine and the wall which is essential to facilitate servicing and repair.

Ø  power points for electrical supply and the required voltage (gas and steam may also be used)

Ø  water supply at the rate of about 10 gallons per Kg of linen approx.

Ø  preventing the occurrence of ‘water hammer’ from hot water supply water heating is through solar energy.

Ø  water softening

Ø  to removal of iron, manganese and sulphur to eliminate staining and enhance action of the detergents

Ø  installation of proper drainage system

Ø  installation of drain to control discharge rate

Ø  a separate section to deal with guest laundry / valet service.

Ø  local code for restrictions / permit requirements.

Ø  energy and water conservation and safety factors consideration

Ø  selection of equipment to suit the premises and projections.

Ø  area must accommodate the total number of staff working at the busiest times

As technology strives to automate every face of hotel operations, computerized laundry systems are getting popular.

LAYOUT OF AN OPL

The layout of the laundry in terms of positioning machines should be such that there is an easy flow of traffic. Attention should be paid to entries, exits, drainage locations, exhaust areas, ventilation and machinery access. The areas for handling clean and soiled laundry should be separated as much as possible to prevent recontamination of clean articles.

Doors

These need to be large enough to initially get the equipment into the room as well as effectively enter and exit with utility carts and/or laundry baskets. Swing doors are good for cart movement. They should have windows for safety and bumpers or guards to protect their appearance.

Ceilings

They should be impervious to moisture and should have good sound absorption properties. An 8-10 foot high ceiling is adequate.

Floors

They should be level concrete slabs capable of supporting the heavy cleaning machines. The floor around the machines should be sloped and there should not be any low spots in the floor where water can pool. Concrete is the most suitable floor material and can be covered by one of the synthetic resinous materials available with a smooth yet non slip surface.

Walls

These should be constructed of a material that is durable, moisture resistant, and insulating. Windows should be avoided so that the wall space can be used for storage shelves. Windows should be constructed with wire glass and should be located high on the wall.

Machinery and Work areas

Allow at least 18 inches space between two machines (the same applies to a piece of equipment and a wall). Dryers can usually be placed side by side (allow about an inch between them), however provide at least a 2 feet space between the back of a machine and a wall. If space is tight, try locating machines in front of a large door to a hall or to the outside. The door can be opened for servicing the machines.

Try to locate the dryers next to an outside wall. They must be vented. Soiled storage and sorting should take place near the washers. Dryers should be a minimal distance from the washers, but they should not interfere with their loading or unloading.

The folding table and area should be located so that finished work is moving towards its final storage area in preparation for distribution. The spotting unit should be located in a well ventilated area.

  

Sample Layout of a Laundry  - from book

  

LAUNDRY EQUIPMENT

Sophisticated machinery is needed in laundries to cope with the various types of fabrics and other items to be laundered, dried and pressed, given the huge amount of laundry to be completed in a given time period. The type and amount of equipment should be chosen keeping in mind the amount of linen to be processed by the laundry.

Laundering equipment

Laundering equipment includes washing machines, dryers, washer cum centrifuge extractors and hydro extractors.

Washing Machines

Those used in hotel laundries are typically of the tumbler type. Their capacities typically vary from 7 to 200 kg. The wash barrels of those used in hotels are usually of stainless steel. Machines with a capacity of 100kg or more generally have a drum that has two or three compartments. These are also referred to as tunnel washing machines. The unit may be end loading or front loading. These machines may work on steam or electricity.

Washing machines consist of a motor, inside and outside shells, and a casing. The outside shell is stationary and holds the wash water. The inside shell holds the laundry and is perforated to allow water for various cycles to flow in and out. The machine’s motor rotates either the perforated inner shell or an agitator. The rotating shell or agitator helps the detergent to break up soil on fabrics in the wash cycle and remove detergents and other chemicals during the rinse cycles. Washing machines with microprocessors are computer controlled.

Most automatic washing machines have detergent and solution dispensing capabilities. In other machines, an operator adds detergent and solutions manually through ports. Washing machines should have at least 5 ports- two for detergents and one each for bleach, softener and sour.

Washer cum Centrifuge and Extractors

These machines range in capacity from 7 to 300kg. They may operate on steam or electricity or even a combination of the two. These washers have extraction capabilities as well. The motor spins the inside shell rapidly to remove most of the excess water after washing is completed. Such washers eliminate the need of hydro extractors.

Hydro Extractors

These are large centrifuges, ranging in capacity from 7 to 70 kg. The basket is made of stainless steel. They are electrically operated. Clothes from a washer are put into a hydro extractor to remove about 50-75 percent of the excess water. The water is extracted from the washed linen by means of centrifugal force or by the application of pressure. After extraction the linen are left damp but not wet. They are ready for pressing.

Dryers

These are units of tumbler type equipment meant to remove moisture from damp, tightly packed linen (that have come out of hydro extractors) by tumbling them in a rotating cylinder through which heated air passes. They are generally used for no iron articles and towels as this linen does not require pressing.

Loading is done from one end. The heated air may be produced by electricity, gas or steam. To ensure the energy efficiency of the drier air flow must be continuous. Most dryers have an internal lint removal mechanism. Preventive maintenance should be carried out for dryers regularly. Dirt or lint clogging the air supply vents should be cleaned out twice daily. The ducts should be checked regularly for leaks and the lint containers should be emptied regularly.

Pressing Equipment

Many types of pressing equipments are available for ironing different articles, such as calendars for sheets, curtains and table cloths, sleeve presses, flat bed presses and so on.

Flat Bed Presses

These are available in various sizes and can be heated by electricity or steam. A foot control helps in operating the press. Some are available as twin presses and rotate from front to back horizontally. An article of linen is put under one press and this is sent behind while another article is put under the press. This is sent behind in its turn as the first one comes forward. The first garment, which has now been pressed, is removed while the second is being pressed and a third is inserted in its place. In this way, there is no waste of time or space, else the operator would have to handle two machines simultaneously and keep moving between the two.

Flat work Ironers

These are similar to a flat bed press except that the ironers roll over the material while presses flatten the whole of it once. Also, the articles to be ironed are fed gradually into the ironer, whereas on a flat bed press, they need to be placed on the surface manually. Some ironers also fold the article automatically.

Calenders

These are large presses meant primarily for bed sheets, bed covers, table cloths, and similar articles. They consist of a series of rollers in pairs connected by a number of narrow conveyor belts. The speed of the rollers is adjustable. The sheet is fed in manually. The sheets can also be folded automatically in some calenders, which are fitted with an additional gadget for the purpose.

Steam Presses

These equipments use steam and heat to press the clothes. The neatly folded clothes are sandwiched between two plates, one plate is referred to as ‘head’ and the other is’ buck’ through which steam is passed.

Cuff and Collar Press

This press consists of 3 spring loaded bucks that are firmly padded. The collars and cuffs of the shirts are placed on these. A pivoting head of chrome plated steel bears the same shape as the buck, and, when pressed over the buck, applies uniform pressure over the cuffs and collars.The head is uniformly heated by steam.

Steam Cabinets

These are boxes in which linen such as curtains, bed spreads and blankets are hung so that steam may be passed through them. The steam effectively removes the wrinkles from these articles. However, operating steam cabinets is time consuming and a worker is required to hang individual articles in the box.

Steam air garment Finishers/Genies/Suzie’s

This consists of an open mesh nylon air form bag that shapes garments such as dresses and jackets with a gentle cushion of steam and hot air to restore them an as good as new appearance. The garment is draped on the form, and then the steam and air timers are pre-set. A foot switch starts the steam cycle. Penetrating steam softens and relaxes the garment fibers. Just before the steam cycle ends, the blower automatically starts and the air bag expands gradually to gently shape, dry and set the finish of the garment.

Hand/Flat Irons

Hand irons fall in 2 categories-those using an external heating source and those heated by electricity. The former are box type irons using charcoal or coconut shells. Electric irons are much lighter and easier to use than these traditional irons. Most are thermostatically controlled.

Ironing Board

To be used with hand held irons, the ironing board should be well padded and smooth. It should be covered with a firm, white, woven cover stretched firmly and fastened well. It should stand firm and be of the correct height i.e. 75 cm from the ground is generally comfortable.

Folding Machines

Folding machines do not fold the linen as such. But aid the worker in doing so. The machines hold down one end of the linen to be folded so that the worker can hold it more easily.

Spotting Units

            These consist of a spotting board, a spotting gun and a steam attachment. A spotting board consists of a table that is partly solid and partly perforated. This surface is hard and smooth, made of marble, stainless steel, or some other material that is resistant to acids, alkalis, and other spot cleaning agents used. Dabbing and brushing of stains is done on the solid area of the table.

            The spotting unit has three treadles: one each for steam, vacuum and air. During operation, the spotting gun is held vertically above the stain and at least 10cm away. Steam is shot through the stain and the spot cleaning agent used is flushed out from the fabric.

            Drycleaning Equipment

            These are similar to the washing machines of the tumbler type. They are available in a wide range of capacities. They are steam powered or electrically operated. They carry out washing, extracting, drying and deodorizing in a continuous process. Solvent filtration and distillation is carried out in a closed system. The hot head offset dry-cleaning press is a press designed for additional versatility in finishing silks, especially long gowns and dresses. It is also used for pressing silk saris. It has a polished chrome plated hot head, which gets uniformly heated by steam. The buck is wide so that draping and removal are easily done.

            Carts, Trolleys, And Sacks

            These are used for the transfer of clean linen from the laundry to the linen room and from the linen room to the floor pantries. Linen carts and trolleys may be made from aluminium or steel. Laundry sacks may or may not be mobile. They may be made of wicker, fiber glass or plastic.

LAUNDRY AGENTS

Water by itself is ineffective as a cleaning agent, due to a phenomenon known as ‘surface tension’. It although removes water-soluble dirt, it has little effect on oils and grease. Addition of a detergent allows the water to penetrate, wetting the garment thoroughly so that soil is more accessible and its easy removal.

Detergents

Classification of detergents:

Ø  Synthetic / active detergent

Ø  Built-soap detergent

Ø  Enzyme-action detergent.

Suspending Agent

The role of the suspending agent in cleaning is to hold the dirt in suspension and prevent it from redepositing onto the surface of the clothing. The suspending agent is carboxyl methyl cellulose.

Sequestering Agent

These act along with the suspending agents to hold dirt in suspension. They assist by holding a greater amount of dirt in suspension thereby reducing the likelihood of redeposition. They also have the additional ability to dissolve lime salts that are

responsible for temporary hardness in water. Sodium polyphosphates are used as sequestering agents.

pH Scale for Laundry Agents

This is a scale used to determine the pH of sud in the washing so that it may be possible to adjust the pH of the sud with the use of chemicals to maximize cleaning efficiency.

Other Laundering Agents –

Alkali: Alkalis used in the wash process include: Washing soda, Sodium phosphate, Sodium hydroxide, Sodium metasilicate etc. The role of the alkali in the wash process:

Bleaches: These are used on white articles only. They remove colouring matter by their oxidizing or reducing action. If not in liquid form, they should be dissolved in hot water and

added. The bleaches commonly used in the laundry process are sodium perborate and sodium hypochlorite.

Antichlors: These are agents used to neutralize the residual chlorine in the bleach, particularly in the case of polyesters.

The use of chlorinated bleaches has a tendency to leave yellow deposits on the clothing.

Sour: This is used only in industrial laundering in the final rinse, to neutralize any alkaline soap residues that may be present. It brings the pH to the acidic range between 5 and 6.5, which is agreeable to the human skin and also gets rid of yellow or brown hue caused by alkali residue. Acetic acid is used as the sour. In case where there is a high iron content in the water, Oxalic acid is used to get rid of the reddish, iron deposits. If starch is being used, sour should be added only two minutes before the starch to achieve a pH of 5.0 to 5.5. If a sizing agent is being used, the ideal pH is 7.0 to 8.0, so sour is generally not used.

Optical Brightener / Whitener: This is an optical brightener / whitener, which is in fact a very fine blue coloured liquid dye, which gets bleached in the course of time. It has a fluorescent effect by reflecting the UV rays of the sun. The laundry blue in a powder form is undesirable since it tends to accumulate in the weave of the fabric and causes it to turn grey.

Starch: This is a stiffening agent used to impart a better crease and appearance to the fabric. The use of starch has declined due to the minimum-iron finishes on fabrics and garments and the reduced use of cotton in favour of manmade fibers. However there are some articles that have a better feel and drape when starched and it is particularly

essential for napkin folds. Since polyesters do not have the ability to absorb starch they are stiffened with sizing agents.

Fabric Conditioner and their Role in Laundering:

A fabric conditioner or softener has surface active agents like a detergent but they do not perform the function of cleaning. Fabric conditioners are based on cationic surface-active agents, carrying a positive charge and creates anti-static properties. A fabric conditioner is never used on loads where starch or sizing will be used.

            COORDINATION BETWEEN HOUSEKEEPING AND LAUNDRY

            This applies when the laundry is under the control and supervision of a laundry manager. Without clean linen, the room attendants simply cannot operate. During periods of full occupancy, the housekeeper needs a fast turn around of linenfrom the laundry, but should not always be making an emergency demand from them. As far as possible the housekeeper should stick to the schedule for the laundry. In return, the laundry should provide an acceptable standard of service with regard to laundering. Housekeeping also needs to coordinate with the laundry with regards to the uniforms of housekeeping employees and those of other departments as well.

           

THE LAUNDRY PROCESS

• Pre washing
• Actual washing
• Rinsing
• Hydro Extraction
• Finishing

PRE-WASHING

The following steps are undertaken in the pre washing stage.

Collecting and sorting soiled linen: The GRAs strip the linen from bed and bath areas and put them directly in the soiled linen bag on the room attendants cart. Linen should never be piled on the floor where they may get walked on and soiled further or damaged. F&B linen is also collected for delivery to the laundry. Soiled linen should be sent to the laundry as soon as possible to prevent further contamination and for the stains to set in. In many hotels the soiled linen are sent to the linen room for sorting, counting and recording before being sent to the laundry. Incase of an off site laundry the soiled linen are marked in the linen room before being transported.

Transporting soiled linen to the laundry

Large hotels have a linen chute which runs down the entire height of the building to the laundry’s soil and sort areas. In other hotels, soiled linen is sent to the laundry in laundry sacks or on linen carts. Linen carts should be free of any protrusions that can damage or tear linen items.

Sorting

The soil and sort areas should be large enough to store a day’s worth of laundry without slowing down other activities in the laundry. The articles are sorted out according to the following parameters:

·         Degree of soiling is the first check. The soiled linen is separated into categories of stained, unstained soiled, medium soiled and lightly soiled articles.

·         By colour and fastness of dye

·         By the type of fiber

·         Linen requiring repairing is sent for mending. In case of heavily soiled articles, they are washed and then mended.

·         Condemned or discarded linen are removed and separated from the washing lot.

·         Monogramming of linen must be done before washing in order to prevent pilferage.

·         Light linen is separated. These are the pieces of linen which after repeated use have lost their luster and become worn out. They can be used for house guests or for staff members staying in the hotels.

·         Fancy accessories and attachments such as buttons, buckles, rings are removed and all pockets are emptied and the folds checked.

Weighing and Loading

The articles, once sorted are weighed while dry. This is necessary as each washing machine has specific loading instructions. Weighing is also necessary to measure the productivity of laundry workers. Each type of linen article has a weight which is known so these are counted into piles until the appropriate total weight is reached. Alternatively, bundles of linen may be physically weighed before putting them in compartments.

WASHING

Determine the right washing Programme

Duration: Heavily soiled linen requires more time than lightly soiled linen. The rate at which the soil is removed is not constant. It is highest at the commencement of wash and gradually becomes less as time passes.

Temperature: Generally the laundry workers should choose the lowest possible temperature to do the job effectively and to save energy. However, some detergents and chemicals work properly in hot water and some types of soils require higher temperatures.

ARTICLE	WASHING TEMP.	ARTICLE	WASHING TEMP.
Sheets, pillow cases	95 degrees	Shirts and jeans	40 degrees
Bath linen, table linen	60 degrees	Silk, nylon, polyester	30 degrees
Blankets and bed spreads	30 degrees	Kitchen Uniforms, Dusters, Cleaning cloths	95 degrees
Curtains	30 degrees

Agitation: This is the scrubbing action of the machine. Too little agitation caused by over loading of the machines leads to inadequate washing. It also causes unnecessary wear and tear of the equipment. Too much agitation can damage the fabric.

Chemicals: The chemicals for particular types of soils and fabrics will have to be decided.

Hardness of water: Hard water contains salts that mix with soap and some detergents form a sticky substance called soap curd which is deposited on the laundry and makes the stuff hard.

Number of wash cycles: Several shorter washes are better than one long one. More soil can be removed by freshly made suds and clean water than with one solution in which the soil remains in suspension and has a chance to re-soil the linen during a long wash.

WASH CYCLE

The typical wash cycle consists of nine steps:

·       Flush (1.5-3 min): This dissolves and dilutes water soluble salts to reduce the soil load for the upcoming suds steps. Items are generally flushed at medium temperature at high water levels.

·    Break (4-10 min): A high alkaline break (soil removal) product is added which may be followed by additional flushes. The break cycle is usually carried out at a medium temperature and low water levels.

·      Suds (5-8 min): This is the actual wash cycle in which the detergent is added. The articles are now agitated in hot water at low water levels.

·      Intermediate Rinse/Carryover Suds (2-5 min): The rinse cycle removes soils and alkalinity to help the bleach work more effectively later. It rinses linen at the same temperature as the suds cycle.

·    Bleach (5-8 min): Bleach, if used, is added to hot water at a low water level. Bleach kills bacteria, whitens fabrics and removes stains.

·      Rinse (1.5-3 min): Two or more rinses at medium temperature and high water levels are used to remove detergent and soils from the linen.

·        Intermediate Extract (1.5-2 min): This high speed spin removes left over detergent and soil from the linen. This cycle should not be used immediately after the suds step because it could drive soils back into the fabrics. It should also not be used on no- iron linen.

·         Sour/Softener/Starch/Sizing (3-5 min): Softeners and sours are added to condition fabrics. This cycle is run at a medium temperature and at low water levels. Starches are added to stiffen cotton fabrics.

·         Final extract (2-12 min): A high speed spin removes most of the moisture from the linen. The length of the spin depends on the fabric type, extractor capacity, and extractor speed.

RINSING

This is done using hot and cold water which are usually recovered and recycled from the earlier steps during the last rinse in order to save water.

HYDRO-EXTRACTION

Extraction removes at least 50 percent of the water used in the rinsing process and thereby reduces the weight of the laundry to a minimum and prevents pronounced creases from setting into the fabrics. It also reduces the drying time.

FINISHING

Drying: Items that are dried after hydro extraction generally includes towels, wash cloths, and some no-iron linen. Drying items and temperatures vary considerably for different types of linen. Drying should be followed by a cool down period to prevent the hot linen being damaged or wrinkled by rapid cooling and handling. After drying linen should be immediately removed for folding else wrinkles will set in.

Ironing: Sheets, pillow cases, table cloths and napkins go directly into flat work irons. Towels do not need ironing. They should emerge from the tumble dryer in a soft and fluffy state and may be folded by hand or machine. Guest clothing and uniforms are finished on various steam presses.

Folding: This can be done by hand or machine. Folding personnel must also inspect the linen, putting aside those that are to be laundered again and rejecting stained, torn and otherwise unsuitable items. Folding should be done well away from the stored linen area to avoid re-sorting clean laundry. This step should also be considered a quality control step.

Storing: After folding the items are post sorted and stacked. There should be enough storage space for one par of linen. Finished items should be allowed to rest on shelves for 24 hours after laundering because many types of linen get damaged more easily after washing. Once the linen is on the shelves, yellowing and fading can be spotted easily.

Transferring: Fresh, laundered linen are usually transferred to their areas f use by carts. 

LAUNDRY PROCEDURES FOR DIFFERENT FABRICS

i) Laundering of Cotton

The process of laundering cotton fabrics is dependent on the

texture of the fabrics, fastness of colour and they are sorted into

various categories, such as:

fine, delicate cotton (mulmul, muslin)

white and light fast colours

dark, fast colours

non-fast colours.

A further classification into coarse articles, bed linen and personal articles and table linen. This sorting will help decide:

the temperature of water in the main wash

the need for disinfection / sterilization

the detergent used

the speed of rotation of the drum

the length of the wash cycle

the use of bleach and optical brighteners

the need to starch

suitability of hydro-extraction.

ii) Laundering of Silk

Silk should be washed frequently as perspiration damages the fabric. Never soak articles as it weakens the fabric nor should they be subjected to high heat (wash temperature approx. 30º C). The detergent should have a good surfactant and should not depend on mechanical action for cleaning. No harsh chemicals should be used. The final rinse of silk articles should be carried out with a little vinegar in it. (1 tspn /10 litres water) in order to preserve luster. Silk is too delicate to be hydro-extracted. Silk should never be sundried as this damages the fabric and causes yellowing. Ironing is on medium heat as silk scorches easily. The article must be evenly dampened and water should never be sprinkled on the fabric as it leaves watermarks. Ensure that the articles are completely dry so that creases do not reappear on the portion which is damp. Ironing is carried out on the reverse in order to preserve lustre and air all silk garments after ironing. Silk is usually dry-cleaned.

iii) Laundering of Wool

In the laundering of wool, the articles must be shaken out to remove the dust particles that are held in the loosely constructed weave. Hand-knitted garments are very susceptible to felting and stretching. Mark the outline of the article prior to washing and arrange it in its original size and shape after laundering and dry flat.

In the laundering of wool, the following should be avoided:

application of friction

high and fluctuating temperatures

use of strong laundry agents

wringing tightly and hydro-extraction

hanging the fabric when wet

prolonged soaking as it makes the fabric weak

The capacity of the machine may have to be disregarded due to the bulkiness of the article. The movement of the drum should be gentle and a scrubbing brush should never be used. The wash cycle should be short and water temperature (not more than 35º C). The rinse cycle should be thorough and borax is added to the final rinse water to prevent matting. No hydro-extraction is permitted but there is instead a pumping action for the removal of moisture. Usually ironing is not required, but wherever necessary, iron when the article is completely dry, using a low temperature and ironing on the reverse of the article. It is very essential to air the fabric after ironing.

iv) Laundering of Synthetics

These are specially manufactured so that they shed dirt quickly in the wash. However if they become heavily soiled,(especially collars and cuffs and saree borders) they become difficult

to clean, so it is better to wash them after every use. Soaking the garments before laundering is beneficial as it loosens the dirt. Care must be taken when loading the machine as overloading results in creases which may be difficult to remove later. The application of

friction should be avoided. Use of a scrubbing brush should be restricted to heavily soiled parts only. The wash cycle is short and carried out at a low temperature (30º C) Rinsing should be carried out in water at room temperature. The hydro-extraction cycle is also short as synthetic articles have a low absorbency. Iron on low heat but quickly since a prolonged contact is likely to scorch the fabric.

STAFFING THE ON PREMISE LAUNDRY

A property of 500 or more rooms may require 5-6 laundry attendants if the laundry operation is highly mechanized; 12-15 if it is not. Factors such as linen demand and the labour intensity of the equipment may both affect how large the staff must be. Purchasing labour efficient equipment is one of the few ways to limit the size of laundry staff. Cross training also improves productivity, though it rarely eliminates the need for an entire position.

The essential tasks consist of sorting, washing, drying, folding and stacking of the linen for distribution. The large laundry operation will require sorters, who wait at the chute exits or wait for the carts and then sort the laundry. Wash persons may mix chemicals if required and laundry attendants who operate the balance of the equipment and ready the linen for distribution. A laundry manager or supervisor makes daily assignments and is responsible for the daily laundry operation.

Skills required by every laundry employee:

·         Knowing how each machine works

·         Knowing how long each cycle runs

·         Knowing how long different types of fabrics or weights of fabrics take to dry.

·         Knowing at what temperatures to run the ironer so that the product is not damaged by too much heat or running too slowly.

·         Knowing how to use chemicals properly so as not to endanger staff or damage the product.

Laundry work is physically demanding. Employees assigned to work in the laundry will need stamina to work on their feet and the ability to lift heavy loads at times. In large hotels laundry department may also include a dry cleaning operation which would require 2 or 3 employees for a hotel wit 600 or more rooms. One would operate the dry cleaning equipment; and the other two will press the dry-cleaned items. A thorough knowledge of fabrics

And stain treatment procedures is required, as well as an expertise in dealing with dry cleaning chemicals.

DRY CLEANING

This is the cleaning of fabrics in a substantially non aqueous liquid medium. Dry cleaning removes oils as well as many other water soluble and some insoluble materials with the help of detergents and various other reasons. Unlike laundering, dry cleaning does not cause swelling of the fibers and so does not lead to shrinkage, wrinkles and bleeding of colours. Dry cleaning is thus a safe method for cleaning delicate textiles. It is based on the principle that most of the dirt or soiling matter is held to the fabric by grease. When this grease is removed the dirt is removed along with it.

Advantages and Limitations of Dry Cleaning

Advantages

• It cleans cloths for which laundering is not suitable.
• It causes no shrinkage.
• It does not flatten the pile of fabrics such as velvet.
• Colours do not bleed on dry cleaning.
• Stains are more readily removed by dry cleaning.

Disadvantages

• It is expensive as compared to laundering.
• Many dry cleaning solvents are harmful to health if inhaled for long duration.
• After cleaning with solvents, a certain unpleasant smell tends to be retained by the articles.

Process of Dry Cleaning

Marking: When soiled garments are delivered for dry cleaning, they are first sent to the marking area. Here, a piece of white fabric with a number or some other code stamped on it with indelible marking ink is securely attached to the garment. Every article is marked individually to facilitate identification.

Sorting: The garments then pass on to the sorting area. At this point, mending work, if required, is done. Different types of garments are sorted into different hampers so that each hamper contains only 1 type of garments and can hold a load about 45kg. The six major groups into which the clothes are sorted are:

·         White and light coloured clothes

·         Dark coloured clothes

·         White and light coloured woollens

·         Dark coloured woolens

·         Drapery and furniture covers

·         Rain coats

Application of absorbents: Absorbents are applied to remove grease spots from all kinds of materials, for cleaning light coloured fabrics such as white lace, white furs, white shawls and white felts that are evenly soiled; and for articles such as fur and dark coloured fabrics that cannot be cleaned by solvents alone. The common absorbents used are starch, powdered magnesia, fuller’s earth, bran, moong powder, French chalk and commercial powders sold in perforated top tins.

Pre-Spotting: Heavily soiled areas of the garment are treated with solvents. Volatile dry solvents such as amyl acetate are applied to remove oil borne stains, while non volatile solvents are used on paint or varnish stains. Water soluble stains such as perspiration are spotted with emulsifying agents (water and solvent mixed together). Some pre spotters are digestive agents; they are mixtures of enzymes capable of digesting food stains.

Cleaning: A load of approximately 45kg is transferred to the dry cleaning cylinder. Very delicate clothes are placed in a net bag first. An appropriate solvent is circulated through the clothes. The contact time of the clothes with the solvent and the rinse time vary according to the rate of flow of solvent and according to the size and type of work load. This can vary from 5to 45 minutes depending on fabric composition and degree of soiling. The dry cleaning machine is constructed in such a way as to mechanically agitate the load. The horizontal drum has ribs built in to help lift up the garments as the drum rotates. These garments then drop back into the solvent. Thus immersion and agitation of the garments in the solvent takes place, loosening the soil and dissolving it out. The drum is also perforated to allow the solvent to flow through.

Extraction: Excess solvent is removed from the garments by centrifugal action in a revolving perforated cylinder contained in a tumbler. Modern dry cleaning machine performs the cleaning and extraction in the same cylinder. Thus, the operators are not exposed to the solvent vapors during the process.

Drying: After extraction of excess solvent, the garments are dried in a dryer that has a perforated drum enclosed in a tumbler. Hot air is passed through the clothes and is removed by an exhaust fan. The temperature is controlled and kept to around 70 degrees. Garments that might be damaged by tumble drying are dried in a drying cabinet in which there is a fan.

Filtration and Distillation of the Solvent: Solvents are expensive and therefore filtered out, distilled and re used; they are not allowed to evaporate after use. This also reduces fire hazards and health hazards to workers in the laundry.

Inspection: Dried garments are inspected to check that they are perfectly clean. If necessary, they are spot cleaned a second time. Wet cleaning may be carried out at this stage. Each article is inspected individually.

Finishing: The garment is restored as nearly as possible to its original size, shape, feel and appearance. The clean garments are then pressed. Pressing is the most expensive operation in dry cleaning.

Packing: Buttons and buckles that had been removed are stitched back on. Finally, the garments are packed in paper or suspended from clothes hangers covered with polyethene bags and are ready for delivery.

 Dry Cleaning Materials

Dry Cleaning Detergents: These are not products formulated as laundry detergents. They are primarily surfactants or a mixture of surfactants with a concentration of active ingredients ranging from 40 to 90 percent.

Absorbents: These are powders such as fuller’s earth, French chalk, talc, bran, salt and powdered sulphur which absorb grease from the fabric.

Solvents: An ideal dry cleaning solvent must be an effective solvent for fats and soils, sufficiently volatile to permit easy drying, easily purified and of low toxicity. It should not weaken, dissolve or shrink the textile fibers or cause bleeding of dyes. It must be non corrosive to metals commonly used in the machinery and may be non flammable as well.

• Petroleum Solvents: These must be clear, water white and free of rancid or otherwise objectionable odours. They are generally of the fast drying type and include the petroleum fractions.
• Halogenated Hydrocarbons: The main advantage of these over petroleum is their non flammability. The use of perchloroethylene gives excellent results. Carbon tetrachloride was the first hydro carbon to replace petroleum because of the high cost of petroleum. It has now been replaced by perchloroethylene because of its toxicity and corrosiveness. Trichloroethylene is also more stable and less toxic than CCl4, the major disadvantage being that it causes bleeding of many acetate dyes.

HANDLING GUEST LAUNDRY

Dealing with guest laundry is one of the major responsibilities of the housekeeping department. Guest laundry must be picked up on time, laundered, and delivered back to the guest on time without any mix ups. Usually guest clothes collected in the morning are delivered back the same evening.

Laundry Lists

Every guest room is provided with laundry bags and laundry lists. The guest is expected to place the soiled clothes in the laundry bag, fill out the laundry form with the necessary details and place a call to the housekeeping department to get the laundry collected. Even if the guest does not make a call, the valet should approach the room for the same.

The valet checks the clothes against the list and takes them down to the linen room. Here the clothes are checked for repairs needed and stray items left in the pockets, they are marked or tagged and details are recorded to avoid misplacement. The clothes are washed, dry cleaned or ironed as per the guest request. Before ironing the clothes are re-sorted according to the room numbers. The ironed clothes are packed and delivered to the guestrooms with the counter foils of the laundry list. Items found in the pockets are delivered back with the laundry.

In order to prevent mix ups the laundry should be informed about room changes. The bills are sent to the front office where they are added to the master bill.

Valet Service

Most hotels provide valet service for the to and fro transfer of guest laundry. Valets collect the soiled guest laundry placed in the laundry bag along with the laundry list. The contents of the laundry bag are verified with the laundry list and if they do not match, the guest is requested by the valet to rectify the mistake. Valets are also responsible for returning the guest laundry back to the room.

The usual laundry service or in house guests is referred to as normal service and entails laundry being collected from guests before 10 am and being returned by evening. On week days there are no additional charges for this service apart from the rates specified on the laundry list. On Sundays and holidays, the normal service is charged at 25% extra. Hotels also have a provision for express service, which takes about 2 to 3 hours. Guests are usually charged 50% extra or double the list rates for express service.

Care Labels

All quality fabrics carry care labels indicating how they have to be cared for and what precautions need to be taken in their care to avoid damage to the fabric. In many countries care labels on fabrics are mandatory by law.

• MH: Machine Wash Hot; Tumble Dry
• MW: Machine Wash Warm; Tumble Dry
• MG: Machine Wash Gently; Tumble dry
• HW: Hand Wash Warm; Line Dry
• Dc: Dry Clean Only

STAIN REMOVAL

A Stain is a spot or localized discolouration left on fabric by reaction with or absorption of a foreign substance. Stain removal or spot cleaning is a skill that demands special attention and specific techniques. The two main factors to be kept in mind while removing a stain are:

Ø  Composition and Colour of fabric

Ø  Nature and age of Stain

General Procedure for Stain Removal

Ø  Identify the stain

Ø  Classify the stain

Ø  Select the reagents to be used

Ø  Select the procedure to be used

Ø  Proceed step by step to remove the stain

Identification of Stains

Colour

The colour of stain generally gives a strong clue as to what the stain is. For instance a red stain may be due to ink, tomato, lipstick, blood, nail polish or some medicine. A yellow stain may be caused by turmeric, mangoes, gravy, or medicine. Blue or black marks may be ink marks.

Texture

By touching the surface of the stain, a clue may be obtained. If the stain is hard to touch, it may be egg. A soft stain may be oil, ghee, lipstick. Sticky stains may be gum or glue. Paint stains usually have a smooth feel. The visual texture or appearance of the stain also gives some clue to the kind of stain. Wax and paint stains build up on the surface of fabric. Oils and fats cause translucent stains.

Smell

If the surface of the stains is rubbed with fingers and then the finger and the stain are smelt, it might be helpful in identifying the nature of the stain. For instance egg, perspiration, medicine, food perfume and so on.

There are two major factors which are responsible for ensuring correct stain removal. One is the stain removal agent and the other is the method of stain removal. It is important to select the right stain removal agents which are friendly.

Methods of Stain Removal - Physical and Chemical

Classification Of Stains

•         Animal – Blood, egg, milk, meat (avoid use of heat on these as they constitute of protein and will coagulate).

•         Vegetable – Tea, cocoa, coffee, fruit and wine  (contain acids therefore use alkaline reagents).

•         Grease – Grease spots or butter, curry, oil, paint, varnish, tar, lipstick (first remove the grease with grease absorbents and then the coloring matter).

•         Dye – Ink, hair dye (bleach if white).

•         Mineral – Chemicals, rust, etc.

Stain Removal Rules

•         Remove the stain when fresh.

•         Study the nature and texture of fabrics and the reagents.

•         Treat known stains with specific reagents.

•         All acid stains to be neutralized with alkaline rinse.

•         Unknown stains to be treated with simple methods like steeping in cold or hot water.

•         While sponging the stain, place a blotting paper under the stained area of the fabric and start from the outer edge of the stain to the centre.

Stain Removal From Fabrics

Condition	Fabric	Method of Removal
Tea, coffee, cocoa (a) Fresh (b) Dry Fruit and wine stain (a) Fresh (b) Dry Mildew. This is formed by the growth of a fungus on damp fabric Grass stain Blood and all protein stains Perspiration     Iron rust stain	White cotton and linen. All other fabrics. White cotton and linen Unbleached and coloured cotton and linen. Other fabrics. White cotton and linen All other fabrics. White cotton and linen All other fabrics All fabrics White cotton and linen All other fabrics All fabrics. All washable fabrics. Unwashable fabrics White cotton and linen. All other fabrics. White cotton and linen. All other fabrics.	1. Pour boiling water through at once. 2. Wash. 1. Steep immediately in warm water. 2. Wash. 1. Steep in glycerine overnight. 2. Spread borax on stain and pour boiling water through. 3. Bleach with household bleach. 1. Steep in glycerine overnight. 2. Steep in hot solution of borax. 3. Fast -dyed fabrics may be treat carefully with diluted household bleach. 1. Steep in a warm solution of borax. 2. Steep in warm hydrogen peroxide or sodium perborate solution, Cover stain with salt. Pour boiling water through it. Wash. Steep in warm water. 1. Spread borax on stain and pour boiling water through. 2. Treat with liquid household bleach 1. Steep in warm hydrogen peroxide solution. 2. Steep in warm solution of sodium perborate. 1. Bleach by sunlight. 2. Treat with liquid household bleach. 1. Bleach with hydrogen peroxide. 1. Steep in glycerine. 2. Steep in surgical methylated s to remove all the green colouring (chlorophyll). 1. Steep in enzyme stain remover. 2. Steep in cold water and salt. Cover stain with paste of starch and cold water. 1. Steep in enzyme stain remover. 2. Bleach in sunlight. Treat with liquid household bleach. 1. Steep in enzyme stain remover. 2. Wash. 3. Bleach according to fabric. 1. Spread salts of lemon over the stain, pour boiling water through. 2. Use commercial rust remover, following instructions carefully. 1. Steep in warm solution of salts of lemon. 2. Use commercial rust remover.
(Black Ink) (a)     Fresh (b)  Dry Red Ink This stain washes out unless made with a persistent dye Marking Ink  This stain is difficult to remove and should be treated when fresh Ball Pen Ink Iodine Medicine Laundry blue Dye Paints Chewing gum  As this has a rubber base it is very difficult to remove. Grease stains (a) Solid (b) Liquid  (including fish oils) Lipstick, grease-paints	White cotton and linen. All other fabrics. All fabrics All fabrics All fabrics. All fabrics. All fabrics. All fabrics. All fabrics. All fabrics All fabrics All fabrics Cottons and linens Other fabrics. Unwashable fabrics. All fabrics.	Wash out as much as possible. 1. Spread salts or lemon over the stain, pour boiling water through. Wash. 2. Treat with borax if washing is not to be done immediately. 3. Treat with commercial ink remover followed by borax solution. 1. Wash out as much as possible. 2. Spread tomato juice over stain. Leave one hour. Rinse and wash. 3. Cover the stain with salt and steep for one hour in lemon juice 1. Treat with alternate solutions of lemon juice and borax. 2. Treat with commercial ink remover. 1. Steep in borax solution. 2. Steep in ammonia solution. 3. Bleach according to fabric. 1. Steep in iodine solution followed by steeping in a solution of sodium thiosulphate. Wash. 2. Bleach according to fabric. Saturate a pad of cotton wool with surgical spirit or with grease solvent. Work with pad over the stain to a10bsorb the ink into the pad. 1. Steep in ethyl alcohol. 2. Steep in sodium thiosulphate solution. Steep in ethyl alcohol or surgical spirit. Steep in a warm solution of acetic acid or vinegar. Bleach according to fabric. Reducing bleaches are often most effective. 1. Paints made with linseed oil be steeped in turpentine. 2. Cellulose paints should be steeped in a grease solvent. 3. Varnish lacquer paints will dis in methylated spirits. 4. Some paints have a special pc remover A benzene-based grease remover may have some effect. Otherwise treat with turpentine. 1. Scrape off as much as possible. Place stain over absorbent paper. Place a moderately hot iron on Work from outside of stain to centre. Continue until paper has absorbed the stain. Wash with hot water and a detergent. When hot water cannot be used the stain should be treated with grease solvent before washing. 1. Cover the stain with French chalk leave for some time to absorb grease. 2. Treat with a safe grease solvent. Treat fabric with a grease solvent. Remove remaining stain with bleach suitable for the fabric. Remove with varnish remover. Acetone and amyl acetate are both injurious to acetates so must not be used on these fabrics. 1. Wash 2. Treat with grease solvent or drycleaning spray.

Safety Precautions in the handling and Disposal of Chemicals

Proper consideration of safety in handling and disposal of chemicals should be observed. The following points must be observed for this purpose.

1.      All hazardous and toxic chemicals (acids, alkalines, some salts, and organics) must be identified. Material information sheets must be acquired and specific warning sign must be shown for potentially dangerous chemicals.

2.      In transport and transfer of chemicals, proper handling precautions provided by manufacturer must be observed. All containers for storage should be chemical resistant, leak free, and with good caps of stoppers.

3.      Gloves and goggles should be used while handling chemical of toxic nature. It is preferred that at least two persons should be present at all time while working with chemicals.

4.      Heating flammable solvent may cause fire. Such work must be carried out in a well-ventilation fume-cupboard.

5.      When you body is contact with the chemical, flush your body with plenty of fresh water and report the accident to the laboratory technician.

6.      Waste products and disposals must be discharged with proper neutralization. If the material to be disposed is extremely toxic or poisonous, the material should be kept in closed container and sent to appropriate agency for proper disposal.

7.      Store heavy and large containers of chemicals on or as near the floor as possible.

8.      Never fill a container with material other than that indicated on the label.

9.      Make sure that every container is properly labeled.

10.  Never  place  bottles  containing  acids  or  alkalis  on  high  shelves  or  on  top  of equipment.

11.  Always wear goggles when breaking up solid chemicals which might chip, or when handling quantities of corrosive liquids such as strong acids and strong bases.

12.  When opening new bottles of acid, always wear goggles.

13.  When pouring a sample from a container, hold the container cap or stopper in the hand.

14.  Never place the cap or stopper on a counter where it may come in contact with a contaminating agent.

15.  Always wipe up any acid that spills or splashes on benches, tables, or floors.

16.  If   any   chemical   is   spilled   or   splashed   on   the   body,   immediately   wash   the contaminated area thoroughly with water.

17.  Keep all sample containers that are in use capped or stopped at all times except when pouring out test portions.

18.  Always replace the same cap or stopper in the container from which it was removed.

19.  Never handle mercury with bare hands; never heat mercury in an open container; and never shake more than 20 milliliters of mercury in a glass container.

20.  Never taste laboratory chemicals. Smell a chemical only when necessary and then only by wafting a small amount of vapor with the hand toward the nose.

21.  Dispose of all unlabeled chemicals.

UNIT- IV

TEXTILES

Any filament, fiber, or yarn that can be made into fabric or cloth, and the resulting material itself. The word originally referred only to woven fabrics but now includes knitted, bonded, felted, and tufted fabrics as well. The basic raw materials used in textile production are fibers, either obtained from natural sources (e.g., wool) or produced from chemical substances (e.g., nylon and polyester). Textiles are used for wearing apparel, household linens and bedding, upholstery, draperies and curtains, wall coverings, rugs and carpets, and bookbinding, in addition to being used widely in industry.

The term TEXTILE is derived from the latin word TEXTILIS, in turn from the verb TEXTERE, which means ‘to weave’.

Fiber

A fiber is a natural or synthetic filament that may be spun into yarn, such as cotton or nylon. Staple fibers are short length fibers. Filament fibers are long and often continuous for a length of yarn.

Yarn

Continuous strand of fibers grouped or twisted together and used to construct textile fabrics. Yarns are made from both natural and synthetic fibers, in filament or staple form. Filament is very long fiber, including the natural fiber silk and the synthetic fibers. Most fibers that occur in nature are fairly short, or staple, and synthetic fibers may be cut into short, uniform lengths to form staple. Spinning is the process of drawing out and twisting a mass of cleaned, prepared fibers. Filament yarns generally require less twist than do staple yarns. More twist produces stronger yarn; low twist produces softer, shinier yarn. Two or more single strands may be twisted together to form ply yarn. Knitting yarns have less twist than weaving yarns. Thread, used for sewing, is a tightly twisted ply yarn.

	Spinning The process of making a yarn from fibre is called spinning. The yarn running lengthwise through a fabric are called WARP yarns or ‘ends’ and the crosswise yarns in a fabric are called WEFT yarns, ‘filling yarns’ or ‘picks’. The term THREAD-COUNT is used to indicate the number of warp ends and weft picks per unit of measure of a fabric.
Selvedge •      The edge of a fabric that is woven so that it will not fray or ravel. It is usually denser and stronger than the rest of the fabric. •      Weaves influence the texture, durability, elasticity, absorbency, luster and appearance of fabrics.

A fabric is typically made by the interlacing of yarns or  fibres. The most common process of such interlacing is weaving.Weaves influence the texture, durability, elasticity, absorbency, lusture and appearance of fabrics.

For many thousand years, the usage of fiber was limited by natural fibres such as flax, cotton, silk, wool and plant fibres for different applications. Flax is considered to be the oldest and the most used natural fibre since ancient times. Fibers can be divided into natural fibres and man-made or chemical fibres.

 Classification of fibers can be done by:

• Type (Natural and manufactured)
• Length (Short staple, long staple, continuous filament)
• Size (Ultra fine, fine, regular, course)

Source based classification of fibers:

• Natural Fibers
• Vegetable fibres
• Animal fibres
• Mineral fibers
• Man Made fibers
• Regenerated fibres
• Synthetic fibres
• Metallic fibres

Length and Content – based Classification:

LENGTH BASED Staple -> All natural fibres except silk Filament -> All manmade fibres as well as silk

CONTENT BASED Cellulose -> Natural-cotton; Manmade-Rayon. Protein -> Natural-silk, wool; Manmade-caslen, azlon. Mineral -> Natural-asbestos; Manmade-glass fibres.

Characteristics of fibers:

NATURAL FIBRE

Any hair like raw material directly obtainable from an animal, vegetable or mineral source that can be convertible after spinning into yarns and then into fabric. Under them there are various categories:

(1) Plant

(2) Animal

(3) Minerals.

Plant Fibers

Cotton

Cotton is a soft fibre that grows around the seeds of the cotton plant .Cotton fibre grows in the seed pod or boll of the cotton plant . Each fibre is a single elongated cell that is flat twisted and ribbon like with a wide inner hollow (lumen).

Properties

It has 8% moisture regain. The cellulose is arranged in a way that gives cotton unique properties of strength, durability, and absorbency. It is fresh , crisp , comfortable , absorbent , flexible, has no pilling problems and has good resistance to alkalis. It has poor wrinkle resistance, shrinkage, poor acid resistance , less abrasion resistance , susceptible to damage by moths and mildew, needs lots of maintenance and stains are difficult to remove. Its fibre length ranges from ½ inches to 2inches. It has 10% increase in strength when wet. It has a flat twisted tube shape.

Kapok Fibre

Kapok fiber is a silky cotton-like substance that surrounds the seeds in the pods of the ceiba tree.

Properties

It can support as much as 30 times its own weight in water and loses only 10 percent of buoyancy over a 30-day period. It is eight times lighter than cotton. It is extremely used as a thermal insulator. It is also lightweight, non-allergic, non-toxic, resistant to rot and odorless. Since it is inelastic and too fragile, it can't be spun. It has outstanding characteristics of lightness, impermeability, thermal insulation and eco- neutrality.

Bast Fibre

Bast fibre or skin fibre is fibre collected from the Phloem, the bast surrounding the stem of a certain plant.

Properties

The bast fibres have often higher tensile strength than other kinds, and make ropes, yarn, paper and composites. A special property of bast fibers is that the fiber is obtained by the process called retting.

Jute Fibre

Jute is one of the cheapest natural fibres and is second only to cotton in amount produced and variety. Fibres are composed primarily of the plant cellulose and lignin.

Properties

Jute is a long, soft, shiny vegetable fibre that can be spun into coarse, strong thread. It is thus a ligno -cellulosic fibre that is partially a textile fibre and partially wood. The plant grows up to a height of 2.5m and its fibre length is about 2m. It has a good resistance to micro organisms and insects. It has low wet strength, low elongation and is inexpensive.

Ramie Fibre

Ramie is one of the oldest fibre crops, having been used.

Properties

Ramie requires chemical processing to de-gum the fibre. It is fine absorbent ,quick drying fibre, is slightly stiff and possesses high natural lustre. Its plant height is 2.5m and its strength is eight times more than cotton.

Hemp Fibre

Depending on the processing used to remove the fiber from the stem, the hemp naturally may be creamy white, brown, gray, black or green.

Properties

It is yellowish brown fibre. Hemp fibers can be 3 to 15 feet long, running the length of the plant. Characteristics of hemp fibre are its superior strength and durability, resistance to ultraviolet light and mold, comfort and good absorbency.

Coir Fibre

Fibre is mechanically extracted from dry mature coconut husk after soaking.

Properties

It is long, hard and strong fibre but with lower softness, lower water absorption capacity, and shorter life than long retted fibre.

Animal Fibres

Animal fibers are natural fibers that consist largely of proteins such as silk, hair/fur, wool and feathers. The most commonly used type of animal fiber is hair.

Silk Fibre

Silk is a natural fiber that can be woven into textiles. It is obtained from the cocoon of the silkworm larva, in the process known as sericulture.

Properties

It’s a fine continuous strand unwound from the cocoon of a moth caterpillar known as the silkworm. It is the longest and thinnest natural filament fibre with the longest filament around 3000yards. It is relatively lustrous ,smooth, light weight, strong and elastic. It is essentially composed of protein fibre and is naturally a white coloured fiber.

Types of silk

Domestic silk - Mulberry silk : This is a white to yellow colored silk. It is fine and is used mainly for apparel.

Wild silk - Muga silk : This is a golden yellow coloured silk .It is obtained from the semi-domesticated silkworm ,which feeds on the aromatic leaves of Som and Soalu plants.

Eri silk : This is got from the domesticated silkworm. It feeds mainly on castor leaves. Tussar silk : Tussar Silk, also known as Kosa Silk, is valued for its purity and texture. Kosa Silk is drawn from cocoons especially grown on Arjun.

Wool

Wool is the fiber derived from the fur of animals principally.

Properties

It has the highest moisture regain i.e., 14%. It exhibits felting property and is easy to spin due to crimp present in it. It has heat stored within. The length of the fibre is around 3-15 inches.

There are two types of wool namely clipped or fleece wool taken from live sheep and pulled wool removed from sheep already dead. Merino wool is the best grade of wool. In addition to clothing, wool has been used carpeting, felt, wool insulation and upholstery.

Mineral Fibre

Asbestos is the only natural mineral fibre obtained from varieties of rocks.

Properties

It is fibrous form of silicate of magnesium and calcium containing iron and aluminium and other minerals. It is acid proof, flame proof and rust proof. Its particles are carcinogenic and hence its use is restricted.

MANMADE FIBER

Regenerated Fibres

Rayon

Rayon is a manufactured regenerated cellulosic fiber. It is the first manmade fibre.

Properties

It has a serrated round shape with smooth surface. It loses 30-50% of its strength when it is wet. Rayon is produced from naturally occurring polymers and therefore it is not a synthetic cellulosic fiber. The fiber is sold as artificial silk. There are two main varieties of rayon namely viscose and cupra ammonium rayon.

Acetate

A manufactured fiber in which the fiber forming substance is cellulose acetate. Acetate is derived from cellulose by reacting purified cellulose from wood pulp with acetic acid and acetic anhydride in the presence of sulfuric acid.

Properties

It has a luxurious feel and appearance. It is available in wide range of colors and luster. It has excellent drapability and softness. Has relatively fast drying capability. Shrink, moth and mildew resistant. Special dyes have been developed for acetate since it does not accept dyes ordinarily used for cotton and rayon.

Synthetic Fibres

Alginate

Minor fibre made of a jelly like calcium alginate derived from certain forms of sea weed used as scaffolding in such fabrics as surgical dressings.

Polyester

Polyester is a category of polymers which contain the ester functional group in their main chain. The term "polyester" is most commonly used to refer to polyethylene terephthalate (PET).

Properties

It has a high melting temperature. It can be dyed with only disperse dyes. They are thermoplastic, have good strength and are hydrophobic. The fibre has a rod like shape with a smooth surface. It is lustrous and its hand is crisp. It has excellent resiliency and is the best wash and wear fabric.

Nylon

Nylon is one of the most common polymers used as a fiber. There are several forms of nylon depending upon chemical synthesis. Nylon is found in clothing all the time, but also in other places, in the form of a thermoplastic material.

Nylons are also called polyamides, because of the characteristic amide groups in the backbone chain. These amide groups are very polar and are linked with each other with hydrogen bonds. The fibre has a smooth rod like shape with a smooth surface.

Rubber Fibre

Rubber is an elastic hydrocarbon polymer that naturally occurs as colloidal suspension, or latex, in the sap of some plant. The manufacturing process consists of extruding the natural rubber (latex) into a coagulating bath to form filament. The material is cross linked to obtain fibres which exhibit high stretch.

Natural rubber is essentially a polymer of isoprene units. The material properties of natural rubber make it an elastomer . Rubber exhibits unique physical and chemical properties.

Glass Fibre

It is also known as Fiberglass that is a material made from extremely fine fibers of glass. Glass fiber is formed when thin silica-based strands or other formulation of glass is extruded into many fibers. It has a high degree of viscosity. The basis of textile grade glass fibers is silica, SiO2. In its pure form it exists as a polymer, (SiO2)n.

The first type of glass used for fiber was soda-lime glass. It has a good thermal insulation. It has no effect on exposure to sunlight even after extended periods.

  

Metallic Fibres

Metallic fibers are manufactured fibers composed of metal, plastic-coated metal. Gold and silver have been used as yarns for fabric decoration. They are made through laminating process. Coated metallic filaments help to minimize tarnishing.

When suitable adhesives and films are used, they are not affected by salt water, chlorinated water in swimming pools or climatic conditions. If possible anything made with metallic fibers should be dry-cleaned. Ironing can be problematic because the heat from the iron, especially at high temperatures, can melt the fibers.

FABRIC IDENTIFICATION

Tests for Fiber Identification

There are two types of methods that are used for identifying different fibers - the nontechnical tests and the technical tests. The nontechnical tests include the feeling test and the burn test. The technical tests include microscope test and chemical test. The technical tests for fiber identification are carried out in laboratories and require technical knowledge and skills. As such, they are much more reliable methods for testing end product as compared to the non technical tests.

The Nontechnical Tests- Feeling Test and Burning Test

Feeling test involves touching a fabric and feeling the fabric to know its component fibers. For example, wool fabrics will feel warm when touched because the heat generated by wool, which is a nonconductor of heat, will remain in the touched area itself. On the other hand, the fabrics made up of plant fibers such as cotton fabrics, linen fabrics and even the rayon fabrics, that are made from the cellulose of wood pulp or cotton fiber, feel cool to touch. As they are conductors of heat, the heat generated by the finger passes off making the fabric cold. However, it requires a long experience of handling different fabrics over a period of time for such skillful perception. Also, it is difficult to examine and compare the fabrics made of different fiber contents with the feeling test.

The other nontechnical test for fiber identification by the Burn test- involves burning a sample of fabric and observing the various characteristics shown by it after burning in order to determine its fiber content. The burning test is more efficient than the feeling test but it also has its limitations. For example, fabrics made of by-constituent fibers, that are combination of two different textile polymers, cannot be identified with this test.

Those who are related to textile in any way need to know the process of Fabric Identification. A Textile manufacturer, wholesaler or a retailer will have to know what fabric their prospective customers are going to buy and how they will test the end product- the finished fabric. This will equip them to make a fabric having quality that will pass the designated test for it. On the other hand, the customers who can be anyone- a fashion designer, textile designers, tailor, garment manufacturer, manufacturer of other textile products or simply a homemaker who wants to sew a dress at home, they all will need a particular type of fabric to make their ultimate desired product. It is better for them to test the fabric before putting it to use which will save both time and efforts in the long run.

Burn Test- Precautions and the Method
Burn test is the most accepted method for identifying the true nature of any fabric. This test is carried out to know whether a fabric is made up of a natural fiber, manmade fiber, or a blend of natural and manmade fibers.

Precautions
The burn test has to be carried out with great precaution. Arrangement of water near the site of test should be made. The test should be done in a metal bucket, an old tuna tin or a glass ashtray. Plastic containers should always be avoided. If the dish contains soda or even water at its bottom, it’s great.

The Method
To identify the fibers in an unknown piece of fabric, a snippet should be cut off from it. This specimen should be about 1" long and a triangle at most 1/4" wide. The snippet of fabric should be held in a pair of tweezers over the dish (which has already been made fireproof). With either a match or cigarette lighter, the snippet should be put directly into the flame long enough for it to catch on fire.
Most of the fabrics burn and they have to be extinguished. There are other fabrics that burn until there is nothing to burn, or they burn and go out on their own after a few seconds leaving remaining unburned fiber and are therefore self-extinguishing. There are certain other fabrics that do not burn even with a flame held directly to it.

Fibers can also be identified through the smell of the smoke it gives off in burning and the ash or melted bead that remains after it has burned. Some of the fabrics are blends, and the blend of fibers may make the burn test rather unreliable test for fiber content. Moreover, some fabrics have chemical finishes and sizing applied to them that will change the way they burn, making the burn test further unreliable.

Reaction of Fibers to the Burn Test
Cotton
Is a cellulose fiber. It burns and may flare up when lit. No melted bead is left by it. After burning, it continues to glow. It gives out smell like that of a burning paper. The smoke is gray or white. The ash is fine, soft that can be easily crumbled.

Hemp
A cellulose fiber, burns quickly with bright flame. It leaves no melted bead and after burning no sign of flame is seen but it does not melts. It smells like burning leaves or wood. The ash is gray and smoke has no fume hazard.
Jute
Also a cellulose fiber, doesnt shrink from flame. Other characteristics are similar to those of hemp fabric.

Linen (Flax)
A cellulose fiber, it takes longer to ignite. It is easily extinguished by blowing on it. Other properties are similar to hemp and jute.

Rayon
Is a manufactured cellulose fiber. It burns without flame or melting and may flare up. Unless there is a fabric finish, it doesn't leave any bead. After the flame is removed, it may glow a bit longer than cotton. It smells like burning paper and leaves soft, gray ash. It's smoke is a little hazardous.

Silk
Is a protein fiber which burns slowly and curls away from the flame. It leaves dark bead which can be easily crushed. It is self-extinguishing and leaves ash that is dark, gritty, fine powder. It smells like burned hair or charred meat. It gives out a little or no smoke and the fume has no hazard.

Wool
Is a protein fiber which burns slowly. It sizzles and curls away from flame and may curl back onto fingernail. It leaves beads that are brittle, dark, and easily crushed. It is self-extinguishing and leaves harsh ash from crushed bead. It gives out a strong odor of burning hair or feathers. It gives out dark smoke and moderate fume.

Acetate, Triacetate
Is a protein fiber which burns quickly and can flare even after flame is removed. The bead is hard, brittle, and can't be crushed. It melts into very hot bead and drips very dangerously. No ash is left by it and the smell is like hot vinegar or burning pepper. It gives out black smoke and the fume is hazardous.

Nylon, Polymide
Are made from petroleum. Due to their fabric finish, they quickly burn and shrink to flame. The beads are hard, grayish and uncrushable. After flame, they burn slowly and melt. They are self-extinguishing but drip dangerously. Their odor is like celery and they leave no ash but the fume is very hazardous.

Polyester
Is a polymer produced from coal, air, water, and petroleum products. It burns quickly and shrinks away from flame, may also flare up. It leaves hard, dark, and round beads. After the flame, it burns slowly and is not always self-extinguishing. It has a slightly sweet chemical odor. It leaves no ash but its black smoke and fume are hazardous.

Acrylic, Modacrylic, Polyacrylic
Made from natural gas and petroleum, they flare up at match-touch, shrink from flame, burn rapidly with hot sputtering flame and drip dangerously. Beads are hard, dark, and with irregular shapes. They continue melting after flame is removed and are self-extinguishing. When burning, they give out strong acrid, fishy odor. Although no ash is left but their black smoke and fume are hazardous.

As the procedure of fabric identification helps to ascertain the structure of the materials, it is essentially undertaken by the weavers and other textile companies. The textile industry uses various machines, such as, inspection machine, burn machine, fabric dyeing machine, fabric insulation machine and such other machines for carrying out the burn tests of fabrics. The fashion industry is one of its most important aspect as they make specific demands for special or usual cloth materials. The enormous reputations of many famous fashion designer brands are regularly rising all over the world and their clothing lines have special labels declaring to have passed fabric burn tests.

The Technical Tests- Microscope Test and Chemical Test
The technical tests for fiber identification done with the help of laboratory equipment are far more reliable than the nontechnical tests. However, technical knowledge and skill, particularly while handling chemicals, are the basic requirements for conducting these tests.

Microscope Test
Microscopes having magnification of at least 100 power, can be successfully employed for testing and identifying the fiber contents of a fabric. Microscope test is very effective for testing the natural fabrics. Difficulties can be faced while testing synthetic fabrics as many of them have similar appearance. However, one must know what the fibers look like under a microscope as many finishing processes like mercerizing and de-lustering, change the appearance of fibers under microscope. Apart from it, dark colored fabrics also cannot be tested with microscope as light cannot pass through dark substances. For such fabrics, either the textile dyes have to be removed by stripping, bleaching etc. or they have to be chemically tested.
Natural fibers have their own peculiar structures, spots, lines and other marks that help in identifying them. Following are some examples of natural fibers and how they look like under a microscope-

	Cotton: The cotton fiber is a single elongated cell. Under a microscope, it looks like flat, spirally twisted ribbonlike tube with rough granular surface. However, mercerized cotton doesn't have natural twist. The finishing process makes them swollen, straight, smooth and round with a shining surface.
Linen: Linen fiber, under a microscope, looks like having multiple sided cylindrical filaments with fine pointed edges. The filaments show nodes at intervals. It, in fact, looks like a bamboo stick having joints that results into a little unevenness.

Wool: Wool fiber has irregular, roughly cylindrical, multi cellular structure with tapered ends. Under a microscope, three basic layers are shown- epidermis (outer layer), cortex (middle layer) and medulla (inner layer). Medulla is seen only in coarse and medium wool fibers and that too under a highly powerful microscope.

: Raw silk fiber, composed of two filaments, has elliptical shape under the microscope. The two fine and lustrous filaments are shown clearly looking like transparent rods with triangular shape. Wild silk or tussar fiber has different appearance than the cultivated silk. It is flattened, coarse, thick and broader fiber having fine, wavy lines all across its surface whereas cultivated silk is narrower fiber with no marks on it.

Manmade fibers are difficult to identify through microscope because of similar appearance of many fibers. However, their certain distinguishable characteristics under a microscope have been mentioned below.

Rayons: Rayon fiber has uniform diameter with glass like shine. If delustered then rayon fiber shows marks similar to pepper, when viewed cross sectionally. Viscose fiber of rayon looks irregular when viewed cross sectionally.

Acetate: Acetate fiber looks lesser irregular than viscose rayon when viewed cross sectionally. It has indentations that look like occasional marks when viewed longitudinally.

Nylon: There are many variants of nylon fiber. However, generally it appears fine, round, smooth and translucent. Sometimes it has shiny appearance. If it looks dull, it will also be dotted under the microscope.

Polyester: Generally, polyester fiber is smooth, straight. It looks round cross sectionally. However, with various finishing processes, its appearance changes in context of texture and luster.

Spandex: Spandex fiber have the outstanding characteristic of appearing like groups of fibers fused together. However, different variants of spandex show different characteristics too. The Lycra fiber looks like fused multifilaments cross sectionally. Individual fibers are dotted and in shape like that of dog-bone. If viewed longitudinally, they appear straight.

Polypropylene: When viewed cross sectionally, polypropylene fiber looks somewhat round but it looks straight and smooth when viewed longitudinally.

Glass: The glass fiber looks smooth, round, translucent, shiny and flexible.

Chemical Tests
Chemical tests for fiber identification can only be conducted in well equipped laboratories. There are two primary methods to conduct chemical testing- stain and solvent.

Stain Method: Stain technique uses acid and alkali on different fabrics to identify their fiber contents. Most of the fibers have two color reactions when treated with stain. A fiber stained with dilute acetic acid turns to a specific color. The same fiber when stained with mild alkali like soda carbonate turns to a different color again specific to that fiber only. Acetate changes to light green color when acetic acid is used and turns orange when dilute carbonate of soda is used. Likewise, nylon turns beige in one and bright red in other. As double testing is done in this method, it is sometimes referred to as double-barreled stain identification.

Solvent Method: Various solvents are used in this method to distinguish one kind of fiber from another. However, there is no single solvent or chemical that can be used on all fibers. Additionally, different solvent procedures are adopted to separate and identify the fibers that are combined together. It becomes very difficult to use solvent methods in view of fibers that have similar chemical characteristics. Also, when more fibers are mixed to produce blended fabric, then also it becomes tough to identify the fibers with the help of solvent method. However, it is a very effective method for cross checking but in order to have accurate reports, the fabric has to be cleaned thoroughly and the finishing chemicals should also be removed completely. The fabric has to be unraveled, yarns have to be untwisted and the fibers have to be put in the solutions in as loose a condition as is possible.

As an example of solvent method, consider differentiating animal fibers from plant fibers with alkali. If wool or silk fiber has to be eliminated from a blended fabric then strong alkalis can be used because animal particles are destroyed in it. Five percent of caustic soda or sodium hydroxide is used in water. The action of the chemical is hastened by boiling the solution before immersing the sample fabric in it. The wool or silk fiber gets completely dissolved in it. The plant fibers remain unaffected. For differentiating them, acid has to be used as the dilute acids destroy plant fibers. A drop of sulfuric acid has to be put on the sample fabric which, in turn, is placed between two blotters and pressed with hot iron. If it contains cotton, linen or rayon then the fabric gets charred at the spot.